Legal Studies Essay International Crime

International Crime -Crimes against Humanity †¢ Using the case study of Srebrenica, evaluate the effectiveness of international and domestic legal systems in dealing with crimes against the international community International laws and mechanisms to deal with international crime are vast in number. They aid in promoting common moral and ethical standards to be administered worldwide. Tribunals such as the International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia (ICTY) and the International Criminal Court (ICC) have provided a mechanism to deal with international crime.Collaborations of member countries allow these Courts to implement certain justice, but the limitations and ineffectiveness is highlighted when breaches of their administration occur leading to miscarriage of justice for victims, offenders and society. The International Criminal Court The International Criminal Court has been a legal mechanism which deals with international crime and which has had varying effectiveness. The ICC is the world’s first permanent international criminal court and 111 countries have ratified its Rome Statute.The media article â€Å"Effectiveness of ICC without US Support†, Radio Netherlands, 18 June 2009, argues that, even though major powers like India, China and Russia are still not party to the Rome Statue of 2002, the Court has at least managed to put an end to those who may have otherwise escaped punishment from crimes against humanity. Steven Freeland’s article â€Å"Eradicating Evil is on Trial†, The Australian, 2008, highlights the fact that without the ICC and other international tribunals, many thousands of victims and their families would receive no justice at all.However the ICC has limited effectiveness due to its limited ability to enforce international law. One aspect that hinders the effectiveness is the fact that the ICC and other international tribunals have no police force and are reliant on states to arrest indicted victims and bring them before the appropriate court. Without the political will to cooperate in this process the court’s effectiveness is limited.The arrest warrants issued by the ICC against President Omar al-Bashir of Sudan for genocide committed in Darfur, and Bashir’s ongoing contempt for them, are an example of the limitations of international courts in failing to provide justice. Al Bashir’s warrant is the first issued against a sitting head of state, however states lack the necessary will to ensure he is brought to the court. The ineffectiveness is also evident as the court’s warrant lacks enforceability.Further, the Court has only convicted one person during its ten years of operations, Thomas Lubanga, who was jailed for 14 years for recruiting child soldiers, as per the article â€Å"Congolese Warlord Sentenced for 14 Years† News Africa, 10 July 2012. The fact that the Court has arrested only six people and convicted one illustrates the struggles the court faces in delivering justice. The International Criminal Tribunal for former Yugoslavia (ICTY) International courts are often criticised for being ineffective due to their lack of enforcement.However, the International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia reflects an increase in effectiveness. The ICTY is effective as it delivers justice when there is non-compliance of international law. As reported in the Sydney Morning Herald on 20 July 2011, the last remaining fugitive, Goran Hadzic, was arrested by the war crimes tribunal, however it took 18 years to send him to trial. According to the ICTY’s website accessed February 2012, the Tribunal has indicted 161 persons for serious violations of international humanitarian law committed in the territory of the former Yugoslavia.Of this number, 64 have been sentenced, 13 referred to other jurisdictions and 35 proceedings are ongoing. An example of a sentence which provided justice was when Milan Lukic received life imprisonment. T he ICTY is effective as it is effective in delivering justice to offenders, though this has taken years to achieve and is ongoing. Domestic legal systems have been intermittently effective in dealing with crimes against the international community. According to the Sydney Morning Herald, September 2011, the Australian government extradited the accused war criminal Dragan Vasiljkovic to the Tribunal, despite his efforts to block deportation.However, the Sydney Morning Herald article â€Å"See No Evil is Australia’s Way on War Crimes†, October 2011, contrasts the poor performance on the David Hicks affair and argues that Australia has an inconsistent approach to dealing with international crime. Further, the ruling of the Dutch Court in July 2011 that the Netherlands was responsible for the deaths at Srebrenica is a landmark decision that countries contributing to peacekeeping can be held accountable for their actions. Therefore domestic legal systems can be effective in dealing with international crime.The ICTY is effective as it has delivered judgments which promote justice for individuals and society. A landmark ruling of the court was when it ruled mass rape in the time of war a crime against humanity, the first time a court had made such a ruling. As reported in The Guardian newspaper on 23 February 2001, this ruling gave hope to thousands of women abused in times of war. The Court is effective has it reflects moral and ethical standards. The ICTY is effective as it is promotes access to justice for individuals.The Court has a victims and witness section which provides meals and accommodation to witnesses. It also has a translation department and its own legal aid system. Many accused cannot afford legal counsel to gain a fair trial and, according to the ICTY website accessed February 2012, Legal aid accounts for 11% of the tribunal’s budget. Whilst these funds have promoted justice for individuals and victims, a factor which weakens th e Tribunal’s effectiveness is that of resource efficiency as the court cost nearly $301 million to operate in the 2011-12 year.Conclusion The ICC and the ICTY are examples of mechanisms which protect the rights of individuals. International Courts however rely on the cooperation of nation states to ensure accused are brought to justice. Limitations such as government sovereignty and a lack of enforceability means that after the war crime, justice may not be achieved in a timely manner (such as in the Srebrenica case). The ICC and the ICTY are therefore mechanisms which vary in their effectiveness in providing justice.

What Is Cheating?

If a survey was conducted to find out what most persons considered cheating in a relationship the majority of people would say, any sexual involvement with another person that is not your spouse or partner. The WordNet defines cheating as the act of being unfaithful to a spouse or lover. Adulterer, cheater, two-timer or â€Å"player† are all words that describe someone that cheats. These are all words to describe someone that is unfaithful, disloyal, dishonest and untrustworthy in a relationship. What really is cheating in a relationship? Cheating is not just an act of sexual involvement. Cheating is any emotion or act that is a hindrance to an exclusive and committed relationship. Dawn and David were married for five years with two kids. David had spent most of his time at the office while Dawn took care of the kids. David was in the real estate business so he was always meeting new people. One day he met a lady, Stephanie. Stephanie and David exchanged email addresses so that they can further discuss real estate business. An innocent chat that was supposed to be strictly business lead to something more emotional. Over a period of six months David and Stephanie developed feelings for each other. Every night and day he found himself constantly chatting to Stephanie. One night they both expressed that they truly loved each other even though they were in committed relationships. David got a divorce and started a relationship with Stephanie. In this incidence David and Stephanie did not have sexual intercourse. However, they developed a strong bond where eventually they fell in love. David spent most of his time chatting with Stephanie. Stephanie got to know his feelings and thoughts something that only his wife should be able to relate to. He isolated his wife and looked to another figure as someone he could communicate with. Some might say that expressing feelings through instant messaging and texting to another individual other than your spouse or partner is not cheating. Why? – Because they can’t see or touch you. How is this not cheating when eventually you are developing feelings for that particular individual? Cheating is developing an emotional bond with another person that is not your spouse or lover. Lust, a strong sexual desire. Yes, this is the word to describe what goes on in spouse’s or partner’s head when they attend a strip club or watch pornography. Some may find it fascinating and just simply fun to attend a strip club. They might consider this not cheating because they are just â€Å"hanging† with the guys or having fun. How is this not cheating when they are lusting after an individual that is not their â€Å"significant other†? If you lust after a guy or girl that you just saw walking down the street or have been working with for years, you are cheating. Cheating is lusting about someone that you are not committed to. Many persons would say that it hurts more to know that their wife, husband, girlfriend or boyfriend has â€Å"slept† with another person. They would consider this act truly cheating. It is when a sexual act is committed they betrayed. I want to know how they would truly feel if they knew that their significant other developed a bond with another instead of just â€Å"fooling around†. How would they feel if they knew that there was no sexual involvement but they still love them because of who they are? How would they feel if they said that they are leaving them for the girl/guy that works at the strip club? Will it be too late for them to realize that lusting and developing emotions are considered cheating?

Power, poliics and knowledge Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Power, poliics and knowledge - Essay Example Power is very important to the managers or leaders of any organization since it is essential in the directing of its staff. However, the process of acquiring power and using it usually ruins the ethics and values held in the organization (Kelly, 1988 p.3). Discussion Power defines leadership in any company and by definition; leadership refers to the ability of directing a group of employees towards achieving the goals of an organization. Therefore, leadership has formed the basis of classifying managers into five groups or profiles, namely: leader, destructive achiever, builder, mechanic, and innovator (Kelly, 1988 p. 4). The leader refers to the ethical manager who effectively uses his charisma to lead other employees towards achieving organization goals. The builder on the other hand refers to the manager who might be ethical but lacks charisma. Therefore, they are referred to as leaders with limited leadership potential. The destructive achiever is an unethical manager who, even t hough might have high potential, he or she will not contribute towards the achievement of the long term goals of the organization. The innovator is a very creative manager in his or her field but is not termed as a leader and is sometimes termed untrustworthy. Lastly, the mechanics refers to the persons that are competent in their profession but lack the personal impact towards settling of group issues. Therefore, they are not considered leaders or builders of the organization. From the managers listed above, it is evident that for any organization to be prosperous, it requires leaders who are ethical and have charisma which are essential in the realization of the long-term goals of the organization. Ethics is demanded by the society in any given part of the world. Therefore, it has led to the classification of ethics into two groups: ethics of integrity and ethics of social responsibility. The demand for integrity in the business came into existence following the arrival of new mil lennium, which led to the increased number of accounting scandals that occurred in different parts of the world. The results were negative for example; many organizations lost their trust in the corporate world. The demand for social responsibility maintains safety to the society as well as the environment it operates (Jeurissen 2007, p. 3). According to ethics, the exercise of power must conform to the cultural standards as well as the legal standards of ethics. For instance, it has been termed unethical for any organization to use power for its own gain by engaging in illegal activities. For example, an HR assistant has the power of representing the services of the company to client companies as a process of obtaining customers. However, if he or she lies to the clients as a way of gaining more clients is an unethical behavior (Society for Human Resource Management, 2006 p.180). Many workers or employees of an organization have been in dilemma following the use of power by the sen iors. Many employees have experienced tough challenges in choosing between what is good for the organization in terms of profitability and what is right according to the set ethical standards in the community. The findings of the research conducted among the graduates at Harvard revealed that young managers were being forced to make decisions, some of which were unethical by their seniors. Even though the actions were unethical, the young managers still complied because of fear of losing their jobs.

Case Studies of Data Warehousing Failures Essay

Case Studies of Data Warehousing Failures - Essay Example ent), lack of focus or difficulty in identifying the scope of the Project (a business case for the data warehouse not clearly defined), poor data warehousing tool selection process, unproven technology (new or inappropriate software), internal politics within organization, end user involvement/participation in determining information requirements, incomplete functionality, unsatisfied end users, data warehouse tool implemented too complicated for users, below standard or unacceptable performance, not expandable once made, quality of report and data, management not recognizes the benefits of data warehousing, cost is considered instead of project, inappropriate data sources, etc. The three most important factors for successful implementation of any data warehouse project are; well defined scope, reasonable deadline and high-level management support and end users involvement/participation. The scope of the project should be defined clearly by making business case to avoid change of scope during the implementation phase. The deadline should be reasonable because extended deadline ultimately increases the cost of the project (over budget). The most important of all is that the high-level management knows the benefits of the project for providing support. Lacking any of these, results in data warehousing failure. There are several things common in all the case studies. These are high-level management support, the short-term focus of top management (lack of focus), unreasonable deadline, end user involvement, inappropriate tool selection, and internal politics. Auto Guys, Complicated Systems, North American Federal Government and High-Tech Company; all lacks management support for their data warehousing project. In case of North American Federal Government, to acquire the right technology, a formal approval process took almost a year. All the organizations have not clear focus for their data-warehousing project. For example, for North American Federal Government,

Using virtual worlds Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Using virtual worlds - Essay Example The sign up process is one which is rather easy and one which a person can easily comprehend. This is because the things which are demanded are within reach of the person who is interested. For starters, a person has to come up with an avatar, which is the equivalent of a photo. The user then has to choose a preferable username and check whether it is available for use or whether it has been taken by another user. After this, the user has to give some personal information such as the date of birth and the email. After this is done, the account can be activated. Some of the issues which were encountered in the course of this is the fact that it may be difficult for an individual to set up an avatar because some people may not prefer to use their own photos. Coming up with a username may also be a difficult affair because identity is something which people may want to safeguard. In as much as there are good things associated with the site, especially on the side of an individual’s social life, there are some security concerns which may come up in the course of using the site. The first one in this case is when an individual gives out too much information to an extent that another party may use this information to bring harm to the person. The second one is that there may be unscrupulous individuals who may pose as authentic users when in actual sense they may be having ill intentions and in the end up causing harm to the user. There are limited privacy settings which may still be surpassed by people who may want to cause online harm. For example, the passwords of the users may be hacked. This online interaction platform is one of the many internet platforms which are being developed for the purpose of boosting the way people relate with each other. There are those people who prefer to interact over the internet as opposed to doing so in private. This is where the

Do silver ions kill bacteria Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Do silver ions kill bacteria - Lab Report Example Incubate at 37ï‚ °C in a shaker incubator for overnight culture so that the bacteria would be in log phage. After that spin cultures at 6000 PRM for 10 minutes. Remove supernatant, leaving 5 ml in each tube. Resuspend pellet in the remaining supernatant and add 1ml of sterile nutrient broth to disposable plastic curvette and blank spectrophotometer. Add 1ml E.coli culture to plastic curvette and record A600 (make sure A600 ËÆ' 0.5). For each Ag+ compound (WI, WII, WIII, WIV, and WV) and +Ve control, take 10 ml dilution. Prepare 17 autoclave from liquid culture tubes from nutrient broth. The final volume is 10 ml. Add 50 ml of E. coli for each different compound of Ag+ silver ions. In the same way, add 50 ml of S. aureus for each different compound of Ag+ silver ions. For each compound of silver ion one needs to incubate at 370 C in zero time, 4 time and 24 time to try to get a Time serious at the effect concentration to take samples at 0 hour, 4 hour and 24 hour to try get a Time: Concentration for Lethal does. At zero time for small tubes for each compound of silver ions and control, make dilution at 1:1, 1:102, 1:103 Spread plate. 50 ÃŽ ¼l of circled dilutions above on nutrient agar plates. Spread 50 ÃŽ ¼l of – ve control (no bug) controls. Incubate over night culture at 37ï‚ ° C. At 4 times for small tubes of each compound of silver ions and control, prepare before taking sample from them and make dilution at 1:1, 1:102, 1:103. Spread plate. 50 ÃŽ ¼l of circled dilutions above on nutrient agar plates. Spread 50 ÃŽ ¼l of – ve control (no bug) controls. Incubate over night culture at 37ï‚ ° C. At 24 time for small tubes of each compound of silver ions and control what I prepared before take sample from them and make dilution at: 102, 1:103, 1:104, 1:105, 1:106. Spread plate. 50 ÃŽ ¼l of circled dilutions above on nutrient agar plates. Spread 50 ÃŽ ¼l of – ve control (no bug) controls. Incubate over night culture at 37ï‚ °

Exporting and Growth for Small Business Research Paper

Exporting and Growth for Small Business - Research Paper Example Wadia, a manufacturer of high end premium priced compact disk players in the United States faces a similar predicament as the prevailing market niche in the U.S for its products are unsustainable to run a small enterprising business in the industry. Wadia is therefore forced to go an extra mile in the foreign market and export its products. Currently Wadia ships 70 to 80 percent of its manufactured products. The international market has enabled the two companies sell their items at recommendable rates by increasing the economies of scale leading to a profitable venture with an advantage of expanding their market size (Hill, 2011). In a business setting that lacks exportation, Morgan Motors would be confined to its local market which is uneconomical in sustaining its productivity. Dependence on local sales would be disastrous as the company would lose its ready and large external market translating to a large decrease in sales and profits. Economies of scale would also be at their disadvantage. In a case where the company does not incorporate importation of its raw materials, they would not manage to produce their products as they import most of their raw materials. Alternatively, they may be forced to purchase all raw materials locally which would be expensive and not profitable in the long run as desirable sales are not met locally. Generally if a company like Morgan Motors does not engage in importation and exportation business, it would simply go bankrupt, get its assets frozen and shut down (Yager, 2009). There exist impediments to efficient exporting for companies like Morgan and Wadia as they may have the need to maximize on their capacity production but encounter difficulties in getting access to working capital loans for expanding their international market. In tackling this issue and improving their efficiency in production and market demands, these companies can approach banking institutions,

The Transformation of Shell Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The Transformation of Shell - Case Study Example It has had a very good working relationship with the stakeholders in the industry and they include: partners, shareholders, suppliers, contractors and also their customers. The values that govern the company include respect for all, high sense of integrity and honesty at all levels within the organization. Mutual respect, openness, communication, team work, joint solving of problems and a high level of professionalism also govern the company. Partners, suppliers and the society at large. The company acknowledges that the success of its company largely depends on the contributions made by its employees. The company thus respects the basic rights of its employees by providing them with a good working environment so the employees can work comfortably .They provide them with clean and hygienic employment conditions for them to work in. Once they employ their staff, they tend to motivate them by making the best use of their talents through training them so that they get new skills (Post, Preston, and Sauter-Sachs, 2002). The environment in which the employees work is all-inclusive whereby all the employees regardless of their background are given equal opportunities to develop their skills and talent. The employees are also included in the decision making process by including them in the planning stages and also offering them the necessary support and guidance while they perform their duties. A feedback program has also been put into place whereby the employees are encouraged to raise any concerns that they may have and also give opinions on what they would want to see improved in the organization. The customers are also a very important aspect in their business. The company has come up with innovative ways that assists them to win and maintain their customers. They do so by providing goods and services that are very competitive in price, very high quality, safe and above all, environmentally friendly. For the company to be able to be competitive, a team of professionals in the environmental, commer cial and information technology departments support them (Post, Preston, and Sauter-Sachs, 2002). Shell also seeks to have a mutually beneficial working relationship with all its business partners' .The partners include the suppliers, contractors, and any other parties that they could be having a joint venture with. They seek to promote the basic business principles that they possess. With their partners on board, it assists the company to make strategic decisions on whether to get into more partnerships or pull out of the existing partnerships. The company has been involved in the corporate social responsibilities whereby they try to do their business by complying with all the rules and regulations under the law, observing the basic human rights while at the same time providing proper guidelines on issues to do with the safety, health, security and the environment. Business Principles The Company believes in fairness, honesty and integrity while performing their duties and they expect to be treated the same by their partners and competitors. The company has come up with a policy against bribery, soliciting of money, and any other activities by the employees that would be with in conflict

The white mountains Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The white mountains - Essay Example Surprising tones were displayed among the bands of earth made visible by road cut-throughs. These bones of the mountains, the strata that reveal their core construction, only serve to heighten our perception of the volume of rock we’re seeing and the weight of patient time it has taken for wind and weather to sculpt the billowing rounded crests we see emerging around every angle we look. Even the chatter in the car during the drive takes on new dimensions with the changing scenery. While we start with discussions of a suitably frivolous nature, by the time we’ve hit the true mountains our conversation has taken on new weight and purpose. We begin discussing our destination point, The Old Man of the Mountain, and how it came to be. This was a rock formation chiseled out of a cliff’s edge by wind, water, weather and the natural rock fracturing that occurs as a result of constant changes in temperature. The formation closely resembled the features of a craggy old man in profile. The formation collapsed in 2003, the year after our visit. Our stories of how we’d first heard about the Old Man and how we eventually came to the decision to visit slowly began to taper off as the grandeur of the mountains surrounding us began working on our subconscious. With the revelation of each new vista, we began losing track of our conversation, allowing sentences t o dangle without completion as we were struck silently breathless at a new view. Then, suddenly, we were there, at the lookout point just off the freeway that affords a perfect view of the Old Man in profile as he gazes over a spectacular view of Profile Lake. The lake isn’t often mentioned in descriptions of the site and makes a stunning and sometimes surprising counterpoint to the face. He exists in awesome, mystifying reality, poking out from the side of the cliff in perfect detail. It is surprising to us how

Ethical Decisions Scenario Analysis Essay Example for Free

Ethical Decisions Scenario Analysis Essay Reflection Question: Discuss whether you generally make ethical decisions using a traditional or a modern ethical model. Provide an example using an experience you have had in your daily life. I would have to say that what is right is right and what is wrong is wrong. Being true to oneself is ethically speaking. I used to get detention in HS and being an honor student really hurt me. Peer pressure was another feeling that couldn’t be surpassed. Stress and anxiety are add-ons to one’s life experience. I have both. Depression is yet another I have not really dealt with. These feelings are not mutual and do not come easily. Ethics are the study of moral standards and how they affect conduct, by definition. Traditional ethics are from the past and are from the way that people thought about morals and the way that life should be lived back then. Modern ethics came from traditional ethics, but were revised a bit to fit in with new times and with new ways of thinking. Ethics are a part of everyone’s lives. Both are similar, but I believe that the development with the two came from within a person. Someone did not just make up how a person feels inside. A person knows right from wrong from being taught. With that  being said, a person would know that stealing is wrong and that there would be something inside of them saying something like if you take that money from that person that is wrong and you will feel bad if you have good morals. Both forms of ethics have changed through the years and are now at what is called the modern ethics that we have adjusted to fit into today’s society. I would think that the biggest connection between the two forms of ethics is that it is based on morals and how a person feels deep down inside. I feel that it is based on what your heart tells you.

Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS): Causes and Treatments

Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS): Causes and Treatments Lucy Crawshaw Irritable Bowel Syndrome – What is IBS and what are the treatments? The aim of this report is to provide information on Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) and inform those diagnosed with IBS about the treatments available. IBS is a common condition of the small and large intestine, or ‘bowel’. It affects about 15% of the population and of those affected, about 9% are female and 6% are male. IBS is a functional condition, meaning that it disrupts bowel function but does not cause detectable abnormalities in the structure of bowel. This can lead to doctors and the public trivialising the condition, even though it affects patients’ quality of life by causing pain, problems associated with passing faeces and psychological issues such as depression. The Digestive System The body’s cells require many different molecules and ions to function; it is the digestive system (shown in Figure 1) which supplies these nutrients. The term ‘digestion’ encompasses ingestion, digestion (the breakdown of food into its component nutrients), absorption of nutrients and excretion of waste products. During ingestion, food is placed into the mouth, chewed and mixed with saliva to form a soft mass, or bolus. Saliva contains enzymes which catalyse, or speed up, the breakdown of food. After the bolus is swallowed, it travels down the oesophagus into the stomach, aided by peristalsis (muscular contractions which travel down the particular organ). In the stomach, gastric juices including hydrochloric acid and enzymes break down the bolus into a liquid called chyme. The chyme enters the small intestine along with pancreatic juices containing enzymes, and bile (which is produced by the liver and 269 words stored in the gall bladder), where it is fully digested. The nutrients released are absorbed through blood vessels in the small intestine. Peristalsis pushes the undigested matter, including fibre, resistant starch and bacteria into the large intestine (which is divided into the cecum, colon and rectum). Once in the colon, water is absorbed, turning the matter into faeces. The faeces moves into the rectum by peristalsis, after which it is excreted from the anus. What are the symptoms? The severity of IBS symptoms vary but are usually worse in the morning and after eating. Typical symptoms include painful abdominal cramps, which ease after passing faeces, abdominal bloating, flatulence, changes in the consistency of faeces (ranging from diarrhoea to constipation) and passing mucus with faeces. Sufferers may also feel the sudden need to empty their bowels or feel that their bowels are not empty despite having been to the toilet. Other symptoms can include feeling sick, back ache, lethargy, bladder problems including the urgent need to urinate, difficulty emptying the bladder and incontinence and dyspareunia, or pain during sex. IBS is unpredictable in that sufferers may experience no symptoms for months, then experience a ‘flare-up’ for no discernible reason. Symptoms may settle within 2 to 3 days or can take months to settle. IBS has also been linked with psychological problems such as depression and anxiety. It has been estimated that 3 in 4 sufferers will develop depression and about 50% will develop Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAD). What are the causes? The exact cause of IBS is unknown although several theories have been proposed. Some experts believe that IBS is caused by a change in the speed at which chyme is processed through the bowel; slower processing allows the colon more time to absorb water, causing constipation by making faeces harder and more difficult to excrete. If processed more quickly, less water is absorbed, resulting in diarrhoea. A second theory is that IBS is caused by disruption to nerve signals between brain and bowel, increasing sensitivity to pain, so that mild indigestion to a non-sufferer may cause severe pain to IBS sufferer. Both of these changes may be linked to food poisoning or intolerance to certain foods. Another theory suggests that these changes may be caused by stress, anxiety or trauma during childhood (such as abuse or neglect), which decreases the level of the neurotransmitter serotonin in the body. Serotonin is produced by the brain and intestines, and is important in controlling mood and digestion. Reduced serotonin levels have been linked to depression and slow peristalsis in the bowel, leading to constipation. Higher levels of serotonin in the body can increase peristalsis, causing diarrhoea; this theory may help to explain the link between IBS and depression. IBS may also be related to Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth (SIBO), where bacteria from the large intestine migrates to the small intestine and ferment the indigestible components of chyme, and giving off hydrogen, carbon dioxide and methane gas. How is IBS diagnosed? As IBS causes no physical changes to the bowel, doctors must rely on patients describing their symptoms. A diagnosis can be made if the patient has been suffering from the typical symptoms for the previous 6 months. However, doctors may wish to carry out tests including blood tests and faeces tests, to rule out other conditions which cause similar symptoms, like inflammatory bowel disease, 1eliac disease or infections. What are the treatments? As yet, no cure has been found for IBS, however symptoms can be managed. One of the easiest treatments is modification of the diet. Dietary advice is best provided by healthcare professionals on an individual basis, based on the patient’s symptoms and reactions to certain foods. Recording a food diary detailing what is eaten and any ill-effects is an effective way of identifying the changes which are needed. Seeking dietary advice may also benefit other aspects of patient health, including ensuring a balanced diet, and weight management. Fibre, from components of plants like cellulose, lignin and pectin which are resistant to digestive enzymes, is an important factor in the diet. Soluble fibre dissolves in water, causing it to swell and form a gel, softening faeces and stimulating peristalsis. It is though that increasing soluble fibre and water in the diet can ease the symptoms of IBS. In contrast, insoluble fibre acts as an irritant to IBS sufferers as it remains intact during digestion, increasing the speed at which faeces travels through the bowel. Soluble fibre is found in foods like rice, pasta, oats, root vegetables and fruits including bananas and mangoes. Generally, foods which are stringy, have tough skin or contain seeds are high in insoluble fibre. Specific examples include cereals, wholegrain foods, nuts and seeds, salad and dried fruit. Insoluble fibre should not be completely excluded from the diet but should be consumed in small quantities alongside soluble fibre. Cooking, chopping and pureeing foods containing insoluble fibre may help to reduce their ill-effects. To reduce flatulence, a low FODMAP (Fermentable Oligosaccharides, Disaccharides, Monosaccharides and Polyols) diet is recommended. FODMAPs are carbohydrates which are resistant to digestion and as a result, ferment in the bowel. Foods containing FODMAPs include processed wheat products, dairy products containing the sugar lactose, beans and some fruit and green vegetables, including peaches, nectarines, apples, cherries, cabbage, broccoli and peas. Other ‘trigger foods’ that should be avoided include red meat, dark poultry meat and skin, saturated fats (such as butter and lard), sulphur-rich foods including onions and garlic, acidic foods like vinegar and citrus fruits, fructose (fruit sugar) and artificial sweeteners. IBS sufferers are advised to eat regularly, avoid skipping meals and take their time whilst eating. Drinking about 2 litres of non-caffeinated, non-alcoholic liquid per day is also recommended. It is though that probiotic products like yoghurts and capsules may ease IBS symptoms in some patients. It is currently recommended that patients should use a product for 4 weeks before deciding whether it is beneficial. Other suggested ‘off-the-shelf’ products include remedies containing herbs like peppermint, fennel and acacia. Another effective way to manage IBS, whilst also benefiting other aspects of a patient’s health, like weight management and fitness, is to conduct about 150 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise per week (like cycling and walking). Exercise reduces stress by increasing serotonin levels and also pumps blood away from the bowel and towards other muscles, which may help to ease IBS symptoms both during exercise and in the long-term. Stress can also be reduced with relaxation techniques such as breathing exercises and meditation and activities like yoga. Other methods to reduce stress or treat IBS-linked depression are counselling, hypnotherapy and Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), which teaches people to alter their thinking and behaviour. Alternative treatments like acupuncture and reflexology are not recommended. When other treatments fail, doctors may recommend medication. While medication can ease the symptoms of IBS, it may also pose a risk to health due to possible side effects. Antispasmodics such as Mebeverine are prescribed to relax the bowel muscles thus reducing painful abdominal cramps. For patients with constipation, bulk-forming laxatives, like Normacol or Fybogel, can make bowel movements easier and more regular, due to the insoluble fibre contained within these drugs. In contrast, antimotility medicines such as Loperamine slow peristalsis allowing faeces time to solidify in the bowel, thus easing symptoms for patients with diarrhoea. Finally, irrespective of whether a patient is displaying psychological symptoms of IBS, antidepressants may be prescribed. Tri-Cyclic Antidepressants (TCAs), like Amitriptyline, interact with neurotransmitters (including serotonin) in the brain where they reduce anxiety and pain, and in the intestines where they slow peristalsis, making them effective for treating patients with diarrhoea. Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs), like Citalopram, increase serotonin levels in the body, proving them beneficial to patients with constipation. Is treatment effective? A study entitled ‘Effects of a health program comprising reassurance, diet management, probiotics administration and regular exercise on symptoms and quality of life in patients with irritable bowel syndrome’ found that such treatment significantly eased the symptoms of 143 IBS patients who suffered from pain, diarrhoea-dominant IBS or constipation-dominant IBS (as shown in Figure 2). However, this study does not show the individual effect of each treatment. With regards to probiotics, the NHS argues that little evidence supports their use, however studies such as those cited by probiotic manufacturer OptiBac suggest that their products can be highly efficacious. There is also little evidence to support the use of herbal remedies. A review of previous studies entitled ‘Efficacy of antidepressants and psychological therapies in irritable bowel syndrome: systematic review and meta-analysis’ found that antidepressants were 34% more effective than placebo drugs in reducing the symptoms of IBS, while psychological therapies reduced symptoms in 33% of patients. The conclusion stated that both treatments are ‘effective’. What are the implications treatment? The ease of availability of information about self-help treatments, (especially on the internet) could be considered unethical as patients may fail to seek professional medical help. The implication is that patients may receive inadequate treatment for their IBS or that other causes of their symptoms may not be diagnosed, which could prove fatal. The lack of conclusive evidence supporting the use of herbs and probiotics as self-help treatments raises questions as to the ethics of manufacturers promoting such products as they may give rise to ‘false hope’ of a cure. There are also questions as to the ethics of prescribing medication for a ‘functional’ condition. In addition, social stereotyping could lead to patients prescribed antidepressants being labelled as ‘crazy’ etcetera. Finally, the treatment of IBS has a significant economic impact on the UK; the National Institute of Health And Care Excellence (NICE) estimate that diagnosis and management of IBS cost the NHS  £7,879000 in 2008. Evaluation of reference materials Websites like ‘NHS Choices’ and ‘Patient’ provide a useful overview on IBS and cover a wide range of topics, however fail to fully explore many areas including how the different types of fibre affect IBS, why exercise is beneficial to sufferers and how certain drug treatments work. Despite the ethical issues related to selling untested remedies, of all the references cited, ‘Help for IBS’ provides the most practical advice on changing dietary fibre intake, including food preparation tips. In contrast, other websites like ‘NHS Choices’ purely state that changes should be made. ‘Help for IBS’ also includes information on other ‘trigger foods’, which was not available in the other resources. Bibliography SOANES, C., STEVENSON, A., (2009), Oxford Dictionary of English, Oxford, OUP http://www.bsg.org.uk/clinical/commissioning-report/ibs/functional-symptoms.html  (12 Nov 2014) http://www.patient.co.uk/health/irritable-bowel-syndrome-leaflet (11 Nov 2014) http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Irritable-bowel-syndrome/Pages/Introduction.aspx  (11 Nov 2014) http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/standard/biology/animal_survival/the_need_for_ food/ revision/4/ (12 Nov 2014) PAUL, I., (2002), Digestive System: Biology, USA, Macmillan Reference Science Library http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/232248.php (13 Nov 2014) http://ibs.about.com/od/medicationforibs/a/Antidepressants-For-IBS.htm  (13 Nov 2014) http://digestivehealthinstitute.org/2013/05/10/resistant-starch-friend-or-foe/  (14 Nov 2014) (2008), Diagnosis and management of Irritable Bowel Syndrome in primary care, London, NICE http://www.co-operativepharmacy.co.uk/Pharmacy/Medicine-Chest/NHS-Articles/L/Laxatives/ (13 Nov 2014) http://www.webmd.com/diet/fiber-health-benefits-11/insoluble-soluble-fiber  (13 Nov 2014) http://www.helpforibs.com/diet/fiber2.asp (15 Nov 14) http://www.optibacprobiotics.co.uk/faq/which-probiotics-are-for-ibs (16 Nov 2014) http://www.sparkpeople.com/resource/fitness_articles.asp?id=840 (13 Nov 2014) http://www.lef.org/protocols/gastrointestinal/constipation/page-04 (16 Nov 2014) (2008), National Costing Report: Irritable Bowel Syndrome, London, NICE EL-SALHY, M., LILLEBO, E., REINEMO, A., SALMELID, L., HAUSKEN., (2008), Effects of a health program comprising reassurance, diet management, probiotics administration and regular exercise on symptoms and quality of life in patients with irritable bowel syndrome, Gastroenterology Insights FORD, A.C., TALLEY, N.J., SCHOENFELD, P.S., QUIGLEY, E.M.M., MOAYYEDI, P., (2008), Efficacy of antidepressants and psychological therapies in irritable bowel syndrome: systematic review and meta-analysis, Gut

Developmental Psychology Theoretical Approaches Essay -- essays resear

Overview Four theoretical approaches to cognitive development Piaget’s theory Information processing theories Core knowledge theories Sociocultural theories (Vygotsky) General Themes Nature and nurture Continuity vs. discontinuity Active vs passive child Nurture (environment, learning) John Locke (1632-1704) –Infant’s mind as â€Å"tabula rasa† Behaviorism (e.g. Watson, Skinner) Nurture (environment, learning) 'A child's mind is a blank book. During the first years of his life, much will be written on the pages. The quality of that writing will affect his life profoundly.‘ Walt Disney Nature (biology, instinct) Children, like plants, simply â€Å"bloom†, following a timetable laid out in their genes (Gesell, 1933) â€Å"instinct is stronger than upbringing.† --Irish proverb How would a blank slate learn? Word learning ‘by association’ Word learning ‘by association’ Problems with association? category individual part color state of mind Jean Piaget (1896-1980) ‘Constructivist’ Child plays an active role in achieving developmental outcomes Stage like discontinuity Piaget â€Å"the study of stages of intelligence is first a study of the formation of operational structures. I shall define every stage by a structure of a whole, with the possibility of its integration into succeeding stages, just as it was prepared by preceding stages...

Graduation Speech :: Graduation Speech, Commencement Address

Good evening. I’d like you all to do something for me. Think of one person who has inspired you, someone who you look up to and admire; someone who has done impressive things in their life. This person is someone that you will never forget. Now realize that that person has had to put in a great deal of work and time to achieve great things in their life. Know that nothing worth having or achieving comes easily. People like these can be hard to come by, but as students of Stoll High School, we have been extremely fortunate to have access to an entire staff of eager, ambitious and passionate teachers. Over our years here at SHS, many of us have been encouraged by one, if not more, of these extraordinary people. Perhaps when I asked you to think of that person who has inspired you, it was one of your teachers. These are the people who make a difference in the world. They may not affect the price of tea in China, but they challenge people around them to become better than they ever could on their own. Personally, I have been motivated and inspired by several excellent teachers. I would love to go through and list them all and tell you what they’ve done for me, but I’m afraid that if I did, I would lose the attention of those of you who are still actually listening to me. However, I would like to mention two of my personal heroes. First of all, the most challenging teacher I have ever had, Brady Smithson. I’m not sure exactly how I did it, but I survived two and a half years in her English classes, and somehow managed to keep my sanity. But through it all, she taught me to work harder than I ever imagined I could. Thanks for everything. And also, there’s my greatest inspiration, John Grabowski. Mr. Grabowski, thank you for the exceptional improvements which you have brought to the music program. It is so encouraging to see a teacher who views his work not as a job, but as a quest.

When I Grow Up I’M Going to Be

† When I grow up I'm going to be†¦ † How often you must have said the words above when you were younger! You wanted to be a motion-picture star, an acrobat, a fireman, or a sailor. Now that you are older you realize that choosing a vocation is not a simple matter. In fact it is one of the most difficult and most important decisions of your life. Upon it depends your health, happiness, and usefulness. Soon you will be one of many boys and girls who each year go out in search of jobs.Start preparing for your lifework now while you are at school. Study purposefully. You will save yourself many future headaches. True, a few find their lifework accidentally, but there are hundreds who never find their right vocations at all. About 20 per cent of workers are occupational misfits. Jobs change rapidly. Employment opportunities are different from when Dad was a boy. They differ from year to year. In the world today, for example, there are more than 300,000 different occupatio ns.To find the right life- work you need to study your interests and abilities and to explore a variety of vocations. Although there are a vast number of occupations from which to choose, certain traits are required for success in any field-accuracy, ambition, loyalty, and perseverance, for example. Is your supply of perseverance low? Do you become discouraged if you don't succeed in something? What are you going to do about it? As a sensible young person who wants to get ahead in the vocation you choose, you are going to start right now to raise your perseverance index.You are going to stick to a difficult task until you've mastered it, because you know that when you get a job or enter a profession, you will be expected to carry to successful completion every task you start. And what about punctuality? You had better form now the habit of being on time, for in business or a profession lateness will count heavily against you. What are your likes and dislikes? Do you prefer to work i ndoors or out? If four walls and a roof stifle your energy and initiative, investigate such vocations as agriculture, forestry, tree surgery, landscape gardening, aviation, fishing, merchant marine, and surveying.Do you like to work with people, things, or ideas? If people interest you, perhaps you'll enjoy the work of a teacher, physician, nurse, personnel interviewer, social worker, minister, salesman, receptionist, lawyer, insurance agent, or librarian. You'd rather work with things? Then such fields as manufacturing, bricklaying, carpentry, tool-making, welding, transportation, mining, dental mechanics, plumbing, repairing, air conditioning, and printing will probably interest you.Or if ideas hold a deep fascination for you, you may be suited for scientific, literary, or economic research, reporting, writing, advertising, accounting, or designing. â€Å"But,† you are probably protesting, â€Å"I like to work with both people and ideas. † That's all right. The physi cian, the teacher, the minister, the lawyer, the librarian, and the reporter, to name but a few, deal with both people and ideas. The architect, the artist, the engineer, and the mechanic, on the other hand, work chiefly with things and ideas . Do you like to debate questions in social studies?Do you enjoy tackling stiff examples in algebra or geometry? Do you stay after school to experiment in the chemistry laboratory? The subjects in which you do best and in which you take keenest interest show where your abilities lie. If you haven't found your strong points, keep on searching. Try other courses-art, music, commercial subjects, or shop work. What do you do in your leisure time? Are you interested in photography? Do you spend happy hours in your laboratory or workshop? Have you a pile of manuscripts hidden away? Do you give puppet shows for the neighborhood children?Do you like to fuss with flowers and plants? Out of your hobby may grow your vocation. As a boy Thomas Edison like n othing better than to tinker with the apparatus in his laboratory. Whatever you choose as your lifework, your chances for success depend in a large measure on your physical and mental well-being. Although your health is largely what you make it, there are individual differences in strength and endurance, which must be considered in the choice of a vocation. The work of an actor, aviator, or reporter is physically more arduous than that of a librarian or writer.A physician, whose rest is interrupted by emergency calls, must have robust health. Select a vocation for which you are physically qualified. When young people enter a job or university/college, school officials are called upon to write letters of recommendation. What is your attendance record? Your school record? Do you participate in sports, other activities? Are you trustworthy? Even when there is a labor shortage, employers want to know these facts about their prospective employees. You are making now the record upon which the school's recommendation will be made.You are interested in a certain broad field of work it may be scientific, mechanical, or commercial. Or it may be artistic work, work with nature, or with people. You n also have a rough idea about your abilities. How are you going to know about the hundreds or even thousands of i different jobs in your chosen field? You probably want to – know the importance of the job, the kind of work, qualifications needed, pay opportunities, advantages, and disadvantages. Will the work you will be doing offer you the opportunity of making the lives of others richer and happier?In recent years careful research has produced a wealth of printed information on almost every type of job. Reading can fill in the gaps in your job observation and experience. In every field there are jobs ranging from those requiring little training to those which require long training and constantly increasing skill. The jobs at the top are fewest. You may be an electrici an's helper or an electrical engineer; a draftsman or an architect; a filing clerk or a private secretary; a dressmaker or a dress designer. Each of these jobs is a useful one, and one may be a step to another.If you have ability, energy, and determination, you will be wise to train yourself for one of the better positions in the field you select. One good way to learn about a vocation is to try it. Have you, like Thomas Edison, sold newspapers? Have you worked in a laboratory, store or garage? Have you done clerical work, coached weak students, or taken care of children? Through such work you may discover hidden talents. Even if you discover no special gift, your wage- earning experience will develop the self-reliance, poise, and sense of responsibility you will need in any vocation. Keep searching and you will find your lifework.

Leading professional development

Analyze the extent to which the approach relates to an organizational context known to you. The abstract I have selected for review and analysis, with most relevance to my own professional development and therefore is of most interest to me is that of Lyndon &king : can a single, short continuing professional development workshop cause change in the classroom ?This article refocuses attention on the classroom, specifically on the importance of teacher Professional development in enhancing and changing teachers' knowledge and skills in ways that lead to improvement in student performance. It is based on research carried out for SEES study into how far is short continuing professional development is effective?The demonstrated success of the SEES model of short, single workshops in bringing about lasting change in practice is noteworthy, given the emphasis in the literature that CAP can only be effective if it is sustained ; is delivered by a well-trained provider, within a well-structu red workshop that provides opportunities for exploration, practice and peer feedback. Providing a factual framework discussed by many educational researchers, Lyndon and king summarize the context, content, and process of effective and high-quality teacher professional development.Years ago, I have participated with many short and long PDP workshop at 2 schools in which I was a teacher . And to be objective few workshop gave me opportunities to acquire and practice new skills over relatively extended eroded of time, and it provided an ideal environment for interaction with other colleagues . While many other workshop stopped short of producing their intended results; they pointed out problems with traditional teaching but offered little help in changing what happens in the classroom and provided no opportunities for us to practice what we learnt.So the problem was not the lack of professional development activities or whether they are short or long ,to the contrary professional deve lopment for teachers has been included in every major initiative designed to improve student performance. The problem is that the quality of those programs has been inconsistent. Nevertheless, many like Joanne- in the group tutor – would agree with Errata's typology session 10 that the scope of professional development is wider that simply the measurements of results, outcomes and standards, and therefore suggests CAP which is encompassing of other dimensions should be considered Anyone,2013).On the other hands Stephanie had to admit that there was in most of the attended CAP a great deal of scope for personal development, team working, developing greater awareness/understanding and developing problem solving skills. However in order for the school to Justify the resources it is expending, he sees that there must be at least some organizational benefits too (Stephanie, 2013) I agree with Lyndon &king that Professional development can succeed only in settings, or contexts, tha t support it .And this support must come from administrators. Drawing on the case studied in this article (short workshop for science department in many schools designed by the earth science education unit) it shows that one of the finding outcomes of professional development initiative is depended ultimately on the factor whether its administrators consider it important. For this reason, buy-in on the part of administrators (whether state directors, superintendents, or principals) is critical to success (McLaughlin & Marsh, 1978).Leaders can approach decisions about professional development with intellectual rigor and discipline or give them a cursory treatment as an afterthought to more pressing matters. Likewise, their decisions may be implemented with attention to quality and serious reflection on their impact or haphazardly executed with a sense of discharging an unpleasant responsibility. Those are the choices leaders face each time they meet to plan professional development. Harebell,2003) I believe that Short or long workshop is â€Å"not an event, it is a process â€Å"(Harebell, 2003). By â€Å"process† I mean â€Å"the innovation† in the sense of having an adequate theory base; introducing methods for which there is evidence of effectiveness; being supported with appropriate high quality materials. And that the PDP program sometimes needs to be of sufficient length and intensity ;uses methods which reflect the teaching methods being introduced; includes provision for in school coaching (Dade ,2004).By the â€Å"process † I mean that the teachers should work in group to share experiences; communicate effectively amongst themselves about the innovation; should be given an opportunity to develop a sense of ownership in the innovation and be supported in questioning their beliefs about teaching and learning and giving them opportunity for practice and reflection( Dade,2004).By â€Å"process† I mean the knowledge or awarenes s, changes in attitude, development of skill, and transfer of training and ‘executive control which are needed to maximize the chances of CAP leading to change in the classroom Joyce and Showers, 1988) In y point of view , CAP is an opportunity to learn new strategies for teaching to rigorous standards ,and it is not a matter whether the CAP is long or short ,as long as it has this four criteria : a clear focus on learning and learners, an emphasis on individual and organizational change, small changes guided by a ‘grand vision', and ongoing professional development that is procedurally embedded ( Gushes ,2000) in addition to Andy different factors and principles listed before agree with Lyndon that all these elements need to be present if it is to have impact in the lassoer for the benefit of every student. Art 2 Critically analyses an approach to leading professional development you have identified in your work on Theme 3, using at least two ideas selected from the li st below. Professional identity and values Professional learning communities/networks Informal learning Mentoring/coaching Developing capacity Whole team/organizational development Forms of professional development Professional development for individuals Power and culture in organizations Professional development contexts Leading PDP is of great importance in the life of schools, it contributes directly and indirectly to professional and personal development for staff and to the improvement in teaching and learning.Harris reminds us that ‘managing human knowledge is a critical dimension of organizational survival' (Harris, 2001). So it is important that the leader of professional development enables knowledge development by whatever means is appropriate. Professional development is a complex endeavor. Understanding its elements, mastering its implementation and considering its impacts involve continual reflection and analysis. Although it is possible to identify elements and factors that affect professional development is important to hold on to the issue of their interrelationship in terms of development. Many researchers suggest links to individual and organizational issues and influences for the leader of professional development.These include: individual professional identities and values organizational vision, culture and targets the means, availability and accessibility of professional development the role of communities of practice and networking both formal and informal means of development the influence of the nature and context of organizations the influence of peers, mentors and coaches professional teaching and training expectations While these themes can all contribute to professional development leadership, they do so in different ways. In this part I will analyze how organization's context, power and culture contribute to PDP A considerable literature has emerged in recent years concerning the relationship between organizations and learni ng. Many questions have arisen about how organizational arrangements enhance or inhibit the ability of their members (whether viewed individually or as groups) to learn? And to what degree are individuals' learning experiences determined by the ways in which opportunities are structured?Examining the role of organization context may enhance our understanding about these questions. The complexity of the educational professional development context lies in the scope of cultural understandings, factors and influences, which all play a part (Theme 3 section 10). The key is the extent that organization can conduce to the changes that the professional development is designed to bring about. Before change can take place there must be a shared sense of need for change-?the more strongly and widely felt the better. Lack of organization support and change can sabotage any professional placement effort, even when all the individual aspects of professional development are done right.And where s taff development opportunities are poorly conceptualized, insensitive to the concerns of individual participants and make little effort to relate learning experiences to workplace conditions, they make little impact upon teachers or their pupils (Day, 1999) In addition the decisions taken about the structure and functioning of the organization, and the design of work within it, are of fundamental importance in influencing the extent to which individuals can participate in the process of learning (Gaston, 2004). We have to focus on the conditions that organization creates for its members to engage effectively with learning. As Billet states:† Workplace readiness was central to the quality of learning experiences. Readiness is more than the preparedness for guided learning to proceed. It also includes the norms and work practices that constitute the invitational qualities for individuals to participate in and learn through work. Such factors may influence individual learning in a number of ways.They may provide access to knowledge or information; they may facilitate participation in activities with learning attention; they may provide support and guidance to help make learning effective; and they may reward learning activities and outcomes â€Å"(Billet, 2001) On the other hand, a full analysis of leading professional development requires an investigation of power . The inclusion of an analysis of power within educational change is vital because power legitimates and drives change. A post structural views of power rests of three core principles (l)power is not restricted to a dominate few but circulates within school affecting all its members;(2)power relies on language and discourse to instruct its truths;(3)individuals perceive who they are via discourses of truth (Halyards and Leonard,2001). So what is important is the strong relationship between structure and agency in the workplace .And this can provide learning opportunity through : Involving partic ipation in communities of practice, especially opening up opportunities for learning through moving beyond a tightly situated and context bound approach to participation Involving work organization and Job design, especially the creation of environments which allow for substantial horizontal cross- boundary activity, dialogue and problem-solving. Emphasizing the importance of access to knowledge-based qualifications and off-the-Job learning. ( Fuller and Union , 2004) there is an increasing recognition of the importance of culture in designing leadership developments programs (study guide ,IPPP) Good seeds grow in strong cultures . Understanding the school's culture ,therefore, is an essential prerequisite for any internal and external change agent.Organizations should open up space for generating shared meaning, reconstituting power relations to broaden access to knowledge and provide cultural tools to mediate learning. The basic essence of organization ‘s culture is the deep er level of basic assumptions and beliefs that are shared by members of an organization , that operate unconsciously ,and that define in a basic taken for granted fashion an organization's view of itself and its environment (Sheen . 1985) Stool and finks see Cultural norms _ such as :shared goals ;responsibility for success; collegiality; continuous improvement; lifelong learning ;support ;mutual respect ;risk taking; openness celebration and humor -are the unspoken rules for what is regarded as customary or acceptable behavior and action with shape reaction in the school( Stool,1999) .These norms shape reactions to imposed improvement. It is therefore, important for those working in schools to understand their norms because the acceptance of improvement projects by a school depends on the fit between the norms embedded in the changes and those within the school's own culture (Carson,1996). To be effective these cultures norms need to be reflected in strategies that enabled their un derlying values to be translated into genuine engagement of all staff. The norm collegiality most likely seen to lead to improvement. Example of collegiality includes team teaching, mentoring, action research, peer coaching, planning and mutual observation and feedback.These derive their strength from the creation of greater interdependence, collective commitment, shared responsibility, and perhaps most important, greater readiness to participate in the difficult business of review and critique (Fallen and Harvests 1991). This culture will allow teachers to focus upon their own learning, career and promotion ambitions and to consider new responsibilities within their own school context. The assumption is that this will lead to an improved and enhanced sense of professionalism for teachers, plus an increased motivation to stay within the profession. With the additional benefits that come with familiarity of context. A supportive, blame-free environment that encourages and facilitates professional dialogue, and provides opportunities to extend and experiment with new practice can further the benefits of peer collaboration and support (Errata, 2001).To sum up, contexts and cultures may not Just provide or close down opportunity; it may also influence the ability and willingness of individuals† to exercise personal agency in pursuit of developmental goals† (Billet, 2001). As Stool said real improvement cannot come from anywhere other than within schools themselves and within is a complex web of values and beliefs, norms, social and power relationships and emotions . Changing schools is not Just about changing curricula ,teaching and learning strategies ,assessment structures and roles and responsibilities . It requires an understanding of and respect for the different meaning and interpretations people bring to educational initiatives ,and the nurturing of the garden within which new ideas can bloom( Stool. 1999) part 3 :Evaluate the effectiveness or p otential for effectiveness of leading professional development in an organization or team known to you. In your evaluation you will need to define the sense(s) in which you are defining effectiveness. You may consider changes in: the development of individuals organizational capacity and capability Capability and changes in student and/or staff learning and links to goals or targets. Finally make recommendations for developments drawing on your practice, the ideas and the materials from Theme 3 In this part I will examine the effectiveness of leading and implementing curriculum innovation using CIT ,which took place in a Lebanese primary school.My definition of the term† effectiveness â€Å"is when an appropriate professional development provision is successfully matched to particular professional needs. The curriculum implementation required the use of high levels of skill in all of the key areas of leadership including strategy development and implementation, human resource management, teaching and learning, financial management, accountability, and liaison with key stakeholders and the community. Effectively led curriculum innovation, in our school, did improve standards of achievement and increase dents' enjoyment and engagement in learning which the focus of all the staffs efforts was.After the long term assessment of CIT use in the classroom, as a teacher I can confirmed that this professional development had deepened our teachers' knowledge of the subjects being taught; sharpened teaching skills in the classroom; kept up with developments in the individual fields, and in education generally; generated and contributed new knowledge to the profession; Increased the ability to monitor students' work, in order to provide constructive feedback to students and appropriately redirect teaching. From (The National Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching for the 21st Century, 2000) In addition the sense of community, and the â€Å"supportive coachi ng†, and the follow up that was provided by the school leaders,-especially during the early phases of implementation when most problems is usually encountered- helped me and my colleagues† to develop and maintain a sense of efficacy regarding new teaching strategies† (Showers, Joyce, & Bennett, 1987).It was the collaborative and sustained and a blame free environment that encouraged us with opportunities for discussion and exploration with colleagues, ND provided opportunities to extend and experiment with new practice. Monitoring and assessments were important steps were taken to track progress across thematic as well as subject- based curricula. In Such a way we were able to identify failing and vulnerable children, as well as giving leaders and teachers a detailed understanding of what they need to do at the end of each Key Stage in order ensure progress. In addition, the well-developed assessment systems provided accessible and user- friendly data to help teach ers advance within-year progress . III these elements laded a key roles in the effectiveness of leading curriculum innovation.Recommendations: I agree with Levine that CAP should no longer be comprised solely of short courses; teachers need opportunities to reflect, engage in professional dialogue, work with pupils, and engage in peer observation, coaching and feedback (Levine, 1999) And I agree with Sparks and Hirsch, who recommend the following national professional development model for teachers: ; Create learning schools in which all staff is involved in â€Å"sustained, rigorous study of what they teach and how they teach it. Provide time for teacher professional development equaling 25 percent of time during each day for teachers to work together and to collaboratively plan lessons and share information. Base professional development on the collaboration model-?teachers learning from each other.

Reaction Paper About UNICEF Cities Failing Children Essay

As a Filipino and youth of this country, I’ve appreciated UNICEF’s efforts in regards with the children who are in need. It is not easy to aggregate data of the country’s status just to check how are the citizens especially the children are treated and supported by the countries, particularly of their local governments or cities where they are settling. However, the report and data were compiled and reported by State of the World’s Children of UNICEF though it was an article, reported few years ago (March 7, 2012), still it makes me feel uncomfortable and burdened, knowing that many children are deprived of most basic services and necessities that actually they should have. In addition, UNICEF cited Philippines as an example of their article entitled, Cities Failing Children. The report states that children (Filipinos) who live in poor urban even other class of urban communities experience deprivations such as lack of decent housing and limited access to c lean water and they are more exposed to disaster risks and are also more prone to neglect, abuse, and exploitation. It proves that our government is not doing the part that they should be performing, like what we have learned from our previous lesson, Power of the State – the three inherent power of state specifically the police power, which states that it is the sovereign power to promote and protect the general welfare; it is the most pervasive and the least limitable of the three powers of the state, the most essential, consistent and illimitable which enables the State to prohibit all hurtful things to the comfort, safety and welfare of the society, these just become meaningless at all for in reality, this power is not being fully exercised and practiced by our government. In my opinion, our government should at least exert extra sympathy or attention with this kind of problems rather than to their own agendas and non-sense conflicts of their parties. I think it is not impossible for the Philippines to cure and solve this kind of problem if we just unite and our government stop their not-so-needed plans because I strongly believe that the true wealth of the nation is the children and next generation, but if this problem continues and will not be given attention, I assume that next coming years will be more hard to live for. Nevertheless, it’s not late to do something for this kind of problem it is just a matter of love, passion and honesty of our government and even of  us that are more blessed than them. Further, I never lose hope that one day Philippine government and possibly with the help of UNICEF, will use the power of the state to build and create a better future for our generation especially for those children deprived of their basic needs or even their basic rights and solve a lot of problem within these children. Therefore, as a Filipino informed of this matter, we should take responsibility to do something for our beloved country. I have learned that I should have not take for granted things that I have because almost half of our population are deprived of the basic needs that I already have. I don’t want to promise anything but I will try to do the best I can to serve and help our nation. Hoping that after few years, UNICEF’s report about Philippines even their report about the world will be better and be full of hope and great future for the people and most of all, for the children.

Communication in Social Work Practice Essay

1 Social Work Theory & Practice. The Importance of Communication Skills in Social Work Practice. Introduction. Social work is a professional activity. Implicit in its practice are ethical principles, which prescribe the professional responsibility of the social worker. The primary objective of the code of ethics is to make implicit principles explicit for the protection of clients. (BASW, 1976). According to Thompson (2000) Social work involves working with some of the most disadvantaged sections of the community and with people who, for a variety of reasons, are experiencing major problems and distress, often with unmet needs and other difficulties that may at times seem intractable. Lishman (1994) purports a broader definition of Social Work, which involves entering into the lives of people who are in distress, conflict or 2 trouble. To do this requires not only technical competence but also qualities of integrity, genuineness and self-awareness. The Central Council for Education and Training in Social work (United Kingdom) has also set out core skills and characteristics for Social work outlined as follows; The importance of being able to communicate and engage, To be able to promote and enable, To achieve success in planning and accessing information, Intervening appropriately and providing services when necessary, Working competently with other organisations, Developing overall professional competence. So not only do social works need to adhere to ethics and values, they must also look inside themselves as people and seek out the skills necessary to work with various client groups and organisations. As mentioned, communication skills are vitally important, along with listening and analytical skills. Look more:  social process theories essay But it is also very important that the social worker be aware of him/herself, of 3 handing feelings or emotions that may arise through this line of work. Reflection is an important aspect, as well as creativity, sensitivity and humility. A major step forward in contemporary practice was the development of a Code of Ethics (1995), which further defined social work as: „ The primary focus of social work is working with individuals, families, and groups within their social context. Through the training, knowledge and skills which support a high standard of professionalism, the social work task is to facilitate and enable clients to identify options and make decisions for themselves so that they may develop strategies to effect improvement in the quality of their lives. Social work also focuses on issues of social policy, social administration and social justice and the betterment of society as a whole‟ (IASW, 1995: 1). Effective social work requires a multitude of interconnecting knowledge and skills backed up by the values, which underpin 4 good social work practice. To be able to provide a good service the social worker needs to be able to refer to, or call upon a wide body of knowledge. This knowledge base is quite extensive and detailed, as Thompson (2000,p73) points out, â€Å"practitioners are not realistically expected to know all of this knowledge base.† However a certain level of knowledge is essential, for example knowledge of the basics, things such as relevant legislation, theories and techniques involved in a particular case. Knowledge of society and the social processes and institutions is also crucial to the role of a social worker, as these are the very fabric of the profession. No amount of knowledge, on its own, at least, can be effective without the possession of skills to act upon it. Thompson (2000,p82) defines a skill as â€Å"the ability to carry out a particular activity effectively and consistently over a period of time.† The skills with which a social worker is armed must be used in conjunction with the knowledge base to reflect the values, principles, and beliefs associated with the profession. There is a wide range of skills involved in high quality social work from basic communication skills to analytical, presentational, and management skills. Because of the often-sensitive nature of 5 situations social workers can find themselves in, the ability to be patient and understanding is important. Working with children and families is one of the largest areas covered by social work. Insofar as a social worker may be dealing with an individual client, that client’s place in the family can be of critical importance to any assessment. When working with families it is important not to try to mirror one’s ideas of how a family functions. The challenge for the social worker when working with a family is not to generalise but to try to understand â€Å"how does this family work?† Coulshed et al (1998,p171). When dealing with a family it is very important to remain impartial, to take the time to listen to everyone’s point of view. This approach is more likely to â€Å"encourage discussion and sharing in which the worker is free to engage and disengage when the need arises,† Coulshed et al (1998,p175). Another area which social workers are involved is with groups. This is somewhat different to the family situation. It also shares things in common with community work. The role of a social worker as a facilitator or leader of a group has many levels. At different stages the worker has to be â€Å"central, pivotal, peripheral, 6 and central once again,† Coulshed et al (1998,p198). The various stages of group development and the content of the stages outlined by Tuchman and Jensen, in Coulshed et al (1998,p198) names these stages as â€Å"forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning.† The role and tasks of the social worker are to help get group members involved and to encourage the development of a group bond. In the process of doing this s/he must be alert to isolated members, dominant members and conflict within the group, to develop positively the dynamics of the group and achieve a desired outcome, while meeting the needs of all the group members impartially and without bias. Community social work requires the social worker to develop a more flexible approach requiring such skills as recognising and validating skills and interventions. Traditional social work skills may need to be adapted to fit into the community context. Network building can also be a part of the process for a social worker, for example, to bring a group of people together who have similar concerns but are not in a position to facilitate this formation themselves. 7 In each of the above scenarios, the social worker must adapt to the different settings and the number of individuals that may be present and therefore use the most effective form of communication and tools necessary to communicate at different levels, whether that involves one person, several people or a large group. Effective Communication. Effective communication is an essential component of traditional social work activities e.g. providing basic care, giving advice, making assessments, counselling, writing reports and acting as client’s advocates. It is equally necessary for social workers to have effective communication skills if they are to promote self-help and empowerment. Verbal communication is what we say and includes questioning, reflection, focusing, summarising, challenging and confrontation. Verbal communication involves the use of language. The skills involved in engaging, listening, negotiating and challenging are equally relevant to communication in work groups and multi-disciplinary teams. Any commitment to the empowerment of social work clients is meaningless if their 8 views are neither sought nor taken into account. Silverman (1969) emphasises the importance of a non-judgemental approach. There are three main areas of knowledge and experience were valued by clients are outlined by Rees and Wallace (1982), cited in Lishman (1994) Client’s valued workers who had enough experience of life to listen non-judgementally to what they had to say, Client’s valued workers who had enough life experience to understand client’s problems from their own experience, Clients appreciated specialised knowledge and training. Kinds of Communication. Symbolic communication. Symbolic communication involves behaviour, actions or communications, which represent or denote something else. As social workers we need to be aware of the potential meaning of 9 our representation, actions and aspects of our working environment. For example, punctuality, dress and layout of the consultation room are all important aspects of symbolic communication. Proximity needs to be considered in relation to orientation. Sommer and Cook (1968) explored different seating positions and found evidence which suggested that sitting alongside a person implies cooperation, opposite a person competition and at right angles to each other equality of status. Thus sitting behind a des, directly opposite a client, has distancing and power implications but also may be confrontational. Although, There are no fixed rules about posture; being too relaxed may convey power and inattentiveness, being too rigid, tension, anxiety and authority. As social workers we need to be aware of such subliminal reinforcement and to use it discriminatingly. Non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication outlined by Sutton (1979) suggests that while spoken communication is concerned mainly with 10 information giving, non-verbal communication is the ‘music behind the words’ conveying feelings or attitudes. Understanding people or social perception is concerned with the way in which people form impressions of others and make inferences about the causes of their behaviour to enable them to predict and control their own social reality, understanding the causes and motives behind behaviour is Nonverbal Communication or NVB. Nonverbal communication NVB is the way in which people communicate intentionally or unintentionally without the use of words. Expressions, gestures, posture, touch, personal space, eye contact and tone of voice are used to express emotions, convey attitudes, regulate and control speech and communicate personal characteristics. NVB are examined in two ways: Information processing – how do people interpret nonverbal cues? What kinds of inferences do we make about people’s intentions based on these cues, Impression management. Michael Argyle (1988) suggested that NVB is important for: Expressing emotion, Conveying attitudes, 11 Communicating one’s personality traits, Facilitating verbal communications. Patterson (1983) suggests that NVB serve a number of particular functions in social interactions including: Expressing intimacy, Regulating the course of interactions, Exercising social control and dominance. Druckman (1982) outlined five principal uses to which NVB is usually put: To communicate pre-articulated feelings, feelings that cannot be put into words, To provide cues to information processing enabling us to guess at what another person is thinking or feeling, To serve as emphases in persuasive appeals to enhance our success at persuading others, To facilitate deception, To convey subtle messages. 12 The characteristics of NVB were outlined by Dittman (1984). There are users and sources of NVB, nonverbal behaviours are sent by encoders and received by decoders through a variety of different channels. Channels of nonverbal communication include facial expression, eye contact, gestures, touch, paralanguage or nonverbal elements of speech and spatial behaviour. A number of channels are used simultaneously to send a particular emotional message. Behaviours sent are intentionally controlled while behaviours may be received with different levels of awareness. Some messages are received in full awareness and as intended by the sender, whereas other messages are deliberately kept out of full awareness and may distort the intention of the sender. A number of different categories of NVB exist according to Ekman and Friesen (1969): – Emblems – these are movements that are communicative substitutes for words i.e. Handshaking. – Illustrators – these are movements that accompany speech and accent i.e. rapping a table. – Regulators – these are movements that maintain or signal a change in the speaker/ listener roles i.e. Head nods. 13 – Affect displays – these are facial expressions that are used to convey emotions – Adapters – these are self and object manipulations, which relate to an individual emotional, need or state. Mehrabian (1972) suggested that NVB’s were important for indicating a person’s social orientation. Social orientation can be summarised in terms of dimensions; each dimension reveals some aspect of a person’s intention and motivation for interacting. According to Cook (1968) NVB are used to gain fuller descriptions of individuals when little information is available which we use to fill in the missing information about people, and guide our behaviour while interacting. One further way of determining what people think and feel is to try to provide explanations for why they behave in particular ways to reveal the motives and intentions behind their actions. This process is referred to as ‘Casual Attribution’ and is concerned with understanding the reasons behind the behaviour of others. NVB are intended to provide us with clues to how a person feels, enabling us to predict and control our interactions with them. When information is missing implicit personality theories are used to fill in the gaps in our knowledge about a person. 14 Verbal communication. Language consists of symbols that convey meaning, rules for combining those symbols that can be used to generate an infinite variety of messages. People use spoken sound and written words to represent objects, actions, events and ideas, and can be combined in an infinite variety of ways to generate an endless array of novel messages. Written reports and records. According to Lishman (1994) skilled are learned in action, with practise and feedback, written reports and concise record keeping enable the aforementioned to happen. Hargie (1986) acknowledges criticism that social work records and reports are often ‘lengthy, rambling and anecdotal’ and suggests ‘written reports should be clear, concise and concentrate’ on the important features of the case. O’Hagan (1986) calls recording ‘a crucial learning tool’. He argues that after a crisis, detailed scrutiny is 15 essential. Such recoding facilitates learning and self-awareness by a review of the behaviour, feelings, and interactions of all participants including the worker. Doel and Lawson (1986) found that once workers had developed ‘an interactive recording style, using interview time to record the work, the quantity of written material was reduced because it becomes more focused. The South Eastern Health Board (1988) suggest that record keeping and good recording techniques are of vital importance in maintaining good housekeeping practice, facilitating accountability and maintaining the utmost confidentiality. Under the Freedom of Information Act 1997 asserts that the client can request to access to view/ copy their records at a later date. Therefore it is vitally important that all written records be update and regularly reviewed. However there are exemptions to the above, which are also included in the FOI Act provisions. According to the United Kingdom Central Council for Nursing, Midwifery and Health visiting (1993) the purpose of written records is to: To provide an accurate, current, comprehensive and concise information on the client from the initial assessment onwards, 16 including a record of any factors (physical, psychological or social) that appear to affect the client, To facilitate continuity, To provide a record of any problems that may arise and the response taken, To provide evidence of continuing assessments, To record the chronology of events and the reasons for any decisions may, To provide a baseline record against which improvement can be judged, To improve communication between all members of the healthcare team. Lishman (1994) suggests that statements made by the client during interview and subsequent assessments should include the client’s statements. There is also a legal obligation by social workers to maintain written records, the onus being on good practice by practitioners. The role of communication. 17 Communication is a crucial aspect of organising; each and every interaction between the people who constitute the organisation is communication. Communication will be more likely to be good if it has been worked at constantly and not only in emergencies. McKenna (1991) suggests that communication is not simply a matter of sending messages to and from between individuals and groups. It involves being aware of and understanding the experience of other people. This means knowing about the work they do and their perception of their situation. According to McKenna (1991) good horizontal communication between managers and vertical communication between managers and their work force are essential if role and job conflicts is to be avoided. It therefore appears that while managers at top and line management levels sees themselves as doing a good job in communicating with their immediate subordinates, those subordinates do not feel this is the case. Effective communication must be two-way. It must run from top to bottom and bottom to top – vertical communication, and it must flow to and from between people at the same level within the organisation – horizontal communication. The so-called ordinary members control much of what happens to horizontal 18 communication. This is communication between people on the same hierarchical level in an organisation and involves communication between colleague such has team leaders, or team members. Dutfield and Eling (1990) note that effective communication between people involves skills in: Eliciting information, Presenting information, Managing the emotional content of the encounters. Skills in eliciting information: Questions are the most obvious way of eliciting information in any situation but they may be formulated in a number of ways: Open questions – give the other person an opportunity to put forward their point of view without constraints, Closed questions are more focused and usually allow a simple yes or no type answers, Specific questions – focus on facts. The second step in effective presentation of information involves checking that the information has been received and understood, 19 an opportunity is given to ask questions, having a discussion, feedback and asking questions. Dutfield and Eling suggest that managing the emotional reactions of people in formal or informal interviews and at meetings. Emotions enter in when the person gets personally involved. This means that the core part of our self-concept appears to be under attack. We react defensively. Emotional reactions are themselves information and as such they take up part of our information processing capacity. For these reasons the skilful handling of the emotional content of communication is important in order to ensure that conflict and ill will does not result through misunderstandings. The main skills in managing the emotional content of face-to-face meetings are; Preparing well in advance for interviews, Being aware of one’s opinions and prejudices, Clarifying the nature of the problem in behavioural terms – this involves separating fact from opinion, Setting up a suitable place and sufficient time for the interview, 20 Using skills in eliciting information to get the other person’s views, Acknowledge the other person’s emotional investment in the situation, Stay task focused, Decide a plan of action for the future with the person once the emotional content has been dealt with, Follow up the meeting with a memo summarising the agreement reached, Arrange a follow up meeting to review the situation. Managing negotiation by Rackham and Carlisle (1978): Because people perceive situations differently their realities differ, the need to negotiate is a constant part of social life. The approaches to negotiation are as follows: Distributive bargaining – a win/lose position. Underlying this approach is the idea that resources are finite and that each side tries to maximise the gains for itself leaving the other side to settle for less. Win/lose strategies may give short-term gains but are usually less effective in the long term; 21 parties involved in the negotiation are usually involved in a long-term relationship with each other. Integrative bargaining – win/win approaches aims to solve problems in such a way that both sides gain something that they want. Win/win approaches to negotiating are recommended when the parties concerned will have to live and work together over the long term. Lose/lose bargaining – in this situation conflict between the parties is likely to be personalised, parties would rather paralyse or destroy the organisation rather than reach an agreement. Approaches to negotiation make the following assumptions about human psychology: People are rational decision-makers at all times, People have unlimited information processing capacity which allows them to take into account all possible alternatives and all possible outcomes, People possess and understand all relevant information. Thus it is an important part of the process of negotiating successfully to: 22 Supply all relevant information, Ensure that its implications are clear to all concerned, Give time for the information to be considered, Be open to a reconsideration of the information in the light of other points of view, Be willing to raise disagreements in a constructive and non-combatitive manner. Rackham and Carlisle (1978) defined the skilled negotiator as a person who as the ability to achieve an outcome with which participants were satisfied. Skilled negotiators: Use their social networks to get their message through to the other side through different people, Repeat their main theme so that it becomes clear and people can consider its implications, Label their actions themselves so that they cannot be mislabelled by others, Test their understanding of what others are saying to them by summarizing and restating the content back to the other side, 23 Show that they are attending and listening to the other side by asking questions about their proposals, Do not disagree outright but probe the implications, Avoid making a proposal at a time when it will be rejected, When a proposal is on the table from the other side, it should be examined and allowed to wind down before an alternative is put forward, Know that a counter proposal has the best chance of being accepted as a way out of a problem acknowledged by both sides, Don’t waste time, Never personalize difficulties in the process, Are not afraid to disagree, but avoid provocation when doing so. Building and maintaining client-worker relationship. In order for it to be possible to engage with a client, the worker needs to show warmth, empathy, active listening and a non- 24 judgemental approach. Lishman (1994) outlines other core conditions or characteristics found necessary to build and maintain a client-worker relationship. Genuineness is one of the core conditions or characteristics found to be necessary for a counsellor or therapist to help clients effectively – Truax and Carkhuff (1957). They define genuineness as involving the worker in ‘direct personal encounter with the client, meeting him/ her on a person-to –person basis. Warmth/ non-possessive warmth also termed unconditional positive regard is another attribute found by Rogers and the client-centred school 1957 to be a core condition for helping. Warmth is linked with acceptance and conveys respect. It involves the worker accepting the clients experience as part of that person, and can be thought of as a physical way of showing caring and understanding, and is mainly expressed non-verbally. Mehrabian (1972) uses the term to describe a group on non-verbal behaviours conveying, warmth, affiliation and liking. Mehrabian includes physical proximity, leaning and turning towards the client, sitting in a relaxed position, maintaining eye contact and smiling. 25 Acceptance and a non-judgemental approach. Lishman (1994) sees acceptance as a preparedness to try to understand a client’s subjective world, without conveying rejection or disapproval. Encouragement and approval – in the social learning theory terms, conveying approval is giving positive reinforcement, defined by Sutton (1979) as encouraging the repetition of good behaviour. Positive reinforcements include tangible rewards, such as thanks, praise or appreciation. At the same time traditional social work values proposed by Biestek (1965) of acceptance and non-judgemental attitudes, have been interpreted to mean not only that workers should refrain from conveying their disapproval to clients, but also their approval. Empathy – is another core condition or characteristic found to be necessary for a counsellor or therapist to help their clients effectively Truax and Carkhuff (1957). Empathic responses can help a client to make sense of what may feel a jumble of thoughts and feelings. The client may be reassured that there is some meaning in what as felt incoherent and irrational. Empathic responses can help to validate and confirm client’s perceptions, which previously 26 have been ignored, disqualified or disconfirmed. While this cannot heal or solve the past hurt it may reduce its power in the present by helping the client to recognise the hurt and live with it, and perhaps ‘lay it to rest’ and move on. Responsiveness and sensitivity – according to Mehrabian (1972) responsiveness can be conveyed non-verbally and verbally. He found that it was communicated non-verbally by movement; head nods, leg and foot movements, by facial expressions; through pleasantness and changes in expression. Conclusion. The final requirement according to Lishman (1994) for effective communication is the worker’s self-awareness. Communication, verbal, non-verbal or symbolic, is about our use of self. In order to communicate effectively we have to be aware of what we are doing, why we are doing it, how we are presenting ourselves to our clients and, on the basis of this self-knowledge or awareness, what changes in our communication are needed if we are to be more effective. Skilled and effective communication is not a static state. 27 It will always involve change and development and consolidation, learning from our past behaviour and from our mistakes. Writers such as Sheldon (1977) and Fischer (1978) argue that social workers should concern themselves with the evaluation of the effectiveness of their intervention. They stress the importance of, thinking about the ends of work, not just the means of goals and outcomes; setting specific goals to avoid a double agenda, diffusion of goals, inactivity and lack of change, and failure to offer what the client wanted; developing and definiting intervention skills for problem-solving and change. The skills involved in attending and listening, engaging and relating, giving and getting information, negotiating agreements or contracts and helping people to make changes in their attitudes, beliefs or behaviour are relevant to social work in all contexts. Each context will influence the way in which communication occurs, both enhancing and encouraging the use of some skills and constraining or limiting the use of others. Lishman (1994) also suggests that attending – being punctual is an indication to our clients of attentiveness. Listening and an 28 empathic response are important components in enabling the client to feel that such emotions can be accepted, expressed and lived with and do not have to be hidden or feared. Such acceptance may be the staring-point for a client to learn to live with and manage previously disabling emotions. Social workers have to begin from a value base, which entails basic respect for all human beings. Social work as to start from humanistic principles or values about the worth and dignity of each individual. Bibliography. Argyle, M. 1988 Bodily Communication (2nd ed) London: Methuen. Biestek, F.P. 1965 The Casework Relationship, London, Unwin University Books. Coulshed, V. & Orme, J. (1998) Social Work (An Introduction) 3thed. Macmillan. 29 Cook, M. 1968 Studies of Orientation and Proximity, Oxford, Institute of Experimental Psychology. 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O’Hagan, K. 1986 Crisis Intervention in Social Services, Basingstoke, Macmillan. Silverman, P.R. 1969 ‘The Client Who Drops Out: A Study of Spoiled Helping Relationships’, Brandais University PHD Thesis. 31 Sheldon, B. 1977 ‘Do You Know Where You Are Going?’ , Community Care, 8th June 1977. Sommer, R. 1965 ‘Further Studies of Small Group Ecology’, Sociometry, vol.28, pp. 337. South Eastern Health Board, September 22nd 1998, Record keeping in the freedom of information environment. Sutton, C. 1979 Psychology for Social Workers and Counsellors, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, Library of Social Work. Thompson, N. (2000) Understanding Social Work. Palgrave. Traux, C.B. and Carkhuff, R.R. 1957 ‘Towards Effective Counselling and Psychotherapy’, Journal of Counselling Psychology, vol.28. Rackham, N. & Carlisle, J. 1978 The Effective Negotiator – Part 1. The behaviour of successful negotiators. Journal of European Industrial Training, 2. 32 United Kingdom Central council for Nursing, Midwifery and Health Visiting, 1993 Standards for Records and Record Keeping, London UKCC. Wallace, A. and Rees, S. 1988 ‘The Priority of Client Evaluations’, in Lishman 1988. http://iasw.eire.org/ethics.htm http://www.arcaf.net/social_work_proceedings/ 33 Retrieved from â€Å"http://www.socialwork.ie/socialwork/wiki/index.php/Communication_in_Social_Work_Practice_-_Essay† Personal tools